{"id":309,"date":"2010-08-26T01:09:45","date_gmt":"2010-08-25T16:09:45","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/?p=309"},"modified":"2019-04-20T22:57:22","modified_gmt":"2019-04-20T13:57:22","slug":"%e6%b0%97%e6%b8%a9%e3%81%ae%e8%a6%b3%e6%b8%ac-strangeways-2010-measuring-global-temperatures","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/?p=309","title":{"rendered":"\u6c17\u6e29\u306e\u89b3\u6e2c \/ Strangeways (2010) Measuring Global Temperatures"},"content":{"rendered":"<ul>\n<li>Ian STRANGEWAYS, 2010: <i>Measuring Global Temperatures: Their Analysis and Interpretation<\/i>. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 233 pp. ISBN 978-0-521-89848-5.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\u6c34\u6587\u30fb\u5730\u4e0a\u6c17\u8c61\u306e\u73fe\u5834\u89b3\u6e2c\u306e\u65b9\u6cd5\u306e\u6559\u79d1\u66f8<i>Measuring the Natural Environment<\/i><a href=\"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/ja\/reading\/strangeways.html\">[\u8aad\u66f8\u30ce\u30fc\u30c8]<\/a>\u306e\u8457\u8005Strangeways\u306b\u3088\u308b\u65b0\u3057\u3044\u672c\u3002\u3053\u306e\u9593\u306b\u306f<i>Precipitation<\/i>\u3068\u3044\u3046\u672c(2007\u5e74)\u3082\u51fa\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b(\u308f\u305f\u3057\u306f\u307e\u3060\u8aad\u3093\u3067\u3044\u306a\u3044\u304c)\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u7b2c6\u7ae0\u3067\u6d77\u6d0b\u5185\u90e8\u306e\u6e29\u5ea6\u306e\u89b3\u6e2c(\u3068\u304f\u306b\u30a2\u30eb\u30b4\u30d5\u30ed\u30fc\u30c8)\u3001\u7b2c10\u7ae0\u3067\u4e0a\u7a7a\u306e\u5927\u6c17\u306e\u6e29\u5ea6\u306e\u89b3\u6e2c(\u30e9\u30b8\u30aa\u30be\u30f3\u30c7\u305d\u306e\u307b\u304b)\u3001\u7b2c1\u7ae0\u3067\u6e29\u5ea6\u5909\u5316\u306e\u4e3b\u8981\u306a\u539f\u56e0\u3067\u3042\u308b\u653e\u5c04(\u592a\u967d\u653e\u5c04\u3068\u5927\u6c17\u304b\u3089\u306e\u71b1\u8d64\u5916\u653e\u5c04)\u306e\u89b3\u6e2c\u3092\u6271\u3063\u3066\u306f\u3044\u308b\u304c\u3001\u4e3b\u8981\u306a\u8a71\u984c\u306f\u3001\u5730\u4e0a\u6c17\u6e29\u3068\u6d77\u9762\u6c34\u6e29\u3067\u3042\u308b\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u305d\u3057\u3066\u3001\u524d\u534a\u306e\u8a71\u984c\u306f\u5730\u4e0a\u6c17\u6e29\u3068\u6d77\u9762\u6c34\u6e29\u306e\u89b3\u6e2c\u6280\u8853\u3067\u3042\u308b\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u7b2c2\u7ae0\u3067\u306f\u3001\u6e29\u5ea6\u89b3\u6e2c\u30bb\u30f3\u30b5\u30fc\u3064\u307e\u308a\u6e29\u5ea6\u8a08\u306b\u3064\u3044\u3066\u3001\u30ac\u30ea\u30ec\u30aa\u306e\u540c\u6642\u4ee3\u4eba\u304b\u3089\u6b74\u53f2\u3092\u305f\u3069\u3063\u305f\u3046\u3048\u3067\u3001\u4eca\u4f7f\u308f\u308c\u3066\u3044\u308b\u4e3b\u8981\u306a\u6a5f\u5668\u306e\u539f\u7406\u3092\u8ff0\u3079\u308b\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u7b2c3\u7ae0\u3067\u306f\u3001\u6c17\u6e29\u3092\u306f\u304b\u308b\u6e29\u5ea6\u8a08\u306b\u3042\u305f\u308b\u653e\u5c04\u3092\u3055\u3048\u304e\u308b\u767e\u8449\u7bb1(Stevenson screen, \u3053\u306e\u82f1\u8a9e\u306e\u3055\u3059\u7bc4\u56f2\u306f\u300c\u767e\u8449\u7bb1\u300d\u3088\u308a\u3082\u72ed\u3044\u3088\u3046\u3060\u304c)\u305d\u306e\u4ed6\u306e\u8986\u3044\u3092\u7d39\u4ecb\u3059\u308b\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u7b2c4\u7ae0\u3067\u306f\u3001\u89b3\u6e2c\u6a5f\u5668\u306e\u8f03\u6b63\u3084\u4fdd\u5b88\u306b\u95a2\u3059\u308b\u6ce8\u610f\u70b9\u306b\u3075\u308c\u3001\u3055\u3089\u306b\u3001\u9678\u4e0a\u306e\u89b3\u6e2c\u5834\u6240\u306e\u7acb\u5730\u6761\u4ef6\u306b\u3064\u3044\u3066\u3001\u89b3\u6e2c\u9732\u5834(met. enclosure)\u306e\u8a2d\u8a08\u3001\u90fd\u5e02\u5316\u306e\u5f71\u97ff\u306a\u3069\u306b\u3064\u3044\u3066\u8ad6\u3058\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u7b2c5\u7ae0\u3067\u306f\u3001\u6d77\u4e0a\u306e\u6c17\u6e29\u304a\u3088\u3073\u6d77\u9762\u6c34\u6e29\u306b\u3064\u3044\u3066\u3001\u305d\u306e\u5b9a\u7fa9\u304b\u3089\u59cb\u3081(\u6d77\u9762\u6c34\u6e29\u306e\u610f\u5473\u306f\u6587\u8108\u306b\u3088\u3063\u3066\u9055\u3046\u306e\u3067\u8981\u6ce8\u610f\u306a\u306e\u3060)\u3001\u8239\u3084\u30d6\u30a4\u306b\u3088\u308b\u89b3\u6e2c\u306e\u3057\u304b\u305f\u3092\u7d39\u4ecb\u3059\u308b\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u3053\u3053\u307e\u3067\u306f<i>Measuring the Natural Environment<\/i>\u3068\u3088\u304f\u4f3c\u3066\u304a\u308a\u3001\u8b70\u8ad6\u306e\u91cd\u306a\u308b\u3068\u3053\u308d\u3082\u3042\u308b\u3088\u3046\u3060\u3002\u767e\u8449\u7bb1\u3001\u89b3\u6e2c\u9732\u5834\u3001\u6d77\u9762\u6c34\u6e29\u6e2c\u5b9a\u7528\u300c\u30d0\u30b1\u30c4\u300d\u306e\u3044\u308d\u3044\u308d\u306a\u578b\u3092\u793a\u3059\u5199\u771f\u306f\u524d\u306e\u672c\u3088\u308a\u3082\u8a73\u3057\u304f\u3066\u8208\u5473\u6df1\u3044\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u5f8c\u534a\u306e\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u306f\u3001\u3053\u306e\u89b3\u6e2c\u5024\u304b\u3089\u4e16\u754c\u3092\u4ee3\u8868\u3059\u308b\u6570\u5024\u3092\u5f97\u308b\u624b\u9806\u3068\u305d\u306e\u7d50\u679c\u306e\u8a71\u3060\u3002\u3068\u304f\u306b\u30a4\u30ae\u30ea\u30b9\u306e\u7814\u7a76\u8005\u306e\u4ed5\u4e8b\u304c\u7d39\u4ecb\u3055\u308c\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3002\u9678\u4e0a\u306e\u6c17\u6e29\u306e\u7dcf\u5408\u3092\u62c5\u5f53\u3057\u3066\u304d\u305f\u306e\u306f\u30012009\u5e74\u306e\u96fb\u5b50\u30e1\u30fc\u30eb\u66b4\u9732\u3067\u6642\u306e\u4eba\u306b\u306a\u3063\u3066\u3057\u307e\u3063\u305fEast Anglia\u5927\u5b66CRU(\u6c17\u5019\u7814\u7a76\u6240)\u306ePhil Jones\u306a\u306e\u3060\u3002\u6d77\u4e0a\u306e\u30c7\u30fc\u30bf\u3092\u6271\u3063\u3066\u3044\u308b\u306e\u306f\u30a4\u30ae\u30ea\u30b9\u6c17\u8c61\u5e81\u30cf\u30c9\u30ec\u30fc\u30bb\u30f3\u30bf\u30fc\u306eDavid Parker, Chris Folland\u305f\u3061\u3060\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u7b2c8\u7ae0\u306b\u306f\u3001Jones\u306e\u4ed5\u4e8b\u3092\u4f8b\u3068\u3057\u3066\u3001\u89e3\u6790\u306e\u624b\u9806\u304c\u8aac\u660e\u3055\u308c\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3002\u307e\u305a\u3001\u5404\u89b3\u6e2c\u5730\u70b9\u306e\u6c17\u6e29\u306b\u3064\u3044\u3066\u3001\u6642\u7cfb\u5217\u3068\u3057\u3066\u30c7\u30fc\u30bf\u306e\u8cea\u306e\u5927\u304d\u306a\u7570\u5909\u304c\u306a\u3044\u3053\u3068\u3092\u78ba\u8a8d\u3057\u3001\u4e00\u5b9a\u671f\u9593\u306e\u5e73\u5747\u5024(\u5e73\u5e74\u5024)\u3092\u6c42\u3081\u3001\u305d\u306e\u5148\u3067\u306f\u5e73\u5e74\u5024\u304b\u3089\u306e\u504f\u5dee\u306b\u3064\u3044\u3066\u4f5c\u696d\u3059\u308b\u3002\u6b21\u306b\u3001\u89b3\u6e2c\u5730\u70b9\u3067\u306e\u5024\u304b\u3089\u898f\u5247\u7684\u306a\u7def\u5ea6\u7d4c\u5ea6\u306e\u683c\u5b50\u70b9\u3067\u306e\u5024\u3092\u7d71\u8a08\u7684\u306b\u63a8\u5b9a\u3059\u308b\u3002\u305d\u308c\u3092\u96c6\u8a08\u3057\u3066\u5168\u7403\u30fb\u534a\u7403\u306a\u3069\u306e\u4ee3\u8868\u5024\u3092\u6c42\u3081\u308b\u3002\u6d77\u4e0a\u3082\u624b\u9806\u306f\u3060\u3044\u305f\u3044\u540c\u3058\u3060\u304c\u3001\u8239\u306e\u4f4d\u7f6e\u306f\u4e00\u5b9a\u3067\u306a\u3044\u306e\u3067\u3001\u5e73\u5e74\u5024\u3068\u504f\u5dee\u306f\u7def\u5ea6\u7d4c\u5ea6\u306e\u5347\u76ee\u3054\u3068\u306b\u6c42\u3081\u308b\u3053\u3068\u306b\u306a\u308b\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u7b2c9\u7ae0\u3067\u306f\u3001\u3053\u306e\u7dcf\u5408\u3055\u308c\u305f\u89b3\u6e2c\u5024\u306e\u6642\u7cfb\u5217\u306b\u898b\u3089\u308c\u308b\u7279\u5fb4\u3068\u305d\u306e\u8b70\u8ad6\u304c\u7d39\u4ecb\u3055\u308c\u308b\u3002\u30a8\u30eb\u30cb\u30fc\u30cb\u30e7\u30fb\u5357\u65b9\u632f\u52d5\u3001\u706b\u5c71\u5674\u706b\u306e\u5f71\u97ff\u306e\u8a71\u3082\u3042\u308b\u304c\u3001\u8a71\u984c\u306f\u3060\u3093\u3060\u309320\u4e16\u7d00\u3092\u901a\u3058\u305f\u6e29\u6696\u5316\u50be\u5411\u306b\u3057\u307c\u3089\u308c\u3066\u3044\u304f\u3002\u8457\u8005\u306f\u3082\u3061\u308d\u3093\u6e29\u5ba4\u52b9\u679c\u6c17\u4f53\u5897\u52a0\u304c\u91cd\u8981\u3060\u3068\u8003\u3048\u3066\u3044\u308b\u304c\u3001\u592a\u967d\u6d3b\u52d5\u306e\u3001\u6210\u5c64\u570f\u3042\u308b\u3044\u306f\u96f2\u3092\u901a\u3058\u3066\u306e\u5f71\u97ff\u306e\u5927\u304d\u3055\u306f\u4e0d\u78ba\u5b9a\u3060\u3068\u3059\u308b\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u307e\u305f\u300120\u4e16\u7d00\u5f8c\u534a\u4ee5\u6765\u306e\u6c17\u6e29\u306e\u65e5\u8f03\u5dee(\u6700\u9ad8\u3068\u6700\u4f4e\u306e\u5dee)\u306e\u6e1b\u5c11\u50be\u5411\u3082\u3068\u308a\u3042\u3052\u308b(\u30a2\u30e1\u30ea\u30abNational Climatic Data Center\u306eRussell Vose\u305f\u3061\u306b\u3088\u308b\u89e3\u6790)\u3002\u534a\u7403\u30fb\u5b63\u7bc0\u5225\u306b\u898b\u308b\u3068\u3001\u5357\u534a\u7403\u306e\u51ac\u306b\u306f\u3053\u306e\u6e1b\u5c11\u50be\u5411\u306f\u306a\u3044\u305d\u3046\u3060\u3002<\/p>\n<p>\u6700\u5f8c\u306e\u7b2c11\u7ae0\u306f\u89b3\u6e2c\u65b9\u6cd5\u306b\u3082\u3069\u308a\u3001\u4e16\u754c\u3092\u4ee3\u8868\u3059\u308b\u5024\u306e\u5909\u5316\u50be\u5411\u3092\u77e5\u308b\u3068\u3044\u3046\u76ee\u7684\u3092\u3082\u610f\u8b58\u3057\u3066\u3001\u89b3\u6e2c\u7db2\u3092\u3069\u3046\u6539\u826f\u3057\u3066\u3044\u3063\u305f\u3089\u3088\u3044\u304b\u306e\u5c55\u671b\u3092\u8ff0\u3079\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3002<\/p>\n<p>[2019-04-20\u88dc\u8db3] \u6298\u308a\u304b\u3048\u3057\u306e\u3042\u3068\u306b\u304f\u308f\u3057\u3044\u76ee\u6b21\u3092\u3064\u3051\u308b\u3002(\u5c0f\u3055\u3044\u898b\u51fa\u3057\u307e\u3067\u3072\u308d\u3063\u305f\u306e\u3067\u9577\u304f\u306a\u3063\u3066\u3057\u307e\u3063\u305f\u3002)<br \/>\n<!--more--><br \/>\n== \u76ee\u6b21 ==<br \/>\n[Contents p.vii]<br \/>\nPreface p.xi<br \/>\nAcknowledgements p.xiii<br \/>\nList of acronyms p.xv[-xviii]<br \/>\n1. The balance of energy p.1<br \/>\n + Solar radiation p.1<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Passage of radiation throught the atmosphere<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Sensible heat flux<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Soil heat flux<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Latent heat flux<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Convection and clouds<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The tropopause<br \/>\n + Infrared radiation and the greenhouse effect p.7<br \/>\n + Measuring the radiation p.10<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Sunshine duration<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Solar radiation [\u3053\u308c\u306f\u76f4\u9054\u65e5\u5c04\u3092\u3055\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b]<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Total incoming solar radiation<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Net radiation<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Radiation processes over the oceans<br \/>\n + Changes in solar activity and climate change p.14<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Milankovitch cycles<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Sunspots<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Changes in the solar constant<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Changes due to Earth&#8217;s elliptical orbit [Solar constant\u306b\u542b\u3081\u308b\u306e\u306f\u4e0d\u9069\u5207\u3060\u3068\u601d\u3046\u304c\u3001\u5730\u7403\u306b\u5c4a\u304f\u7dcf\u91cf\u306e\u5909\u5316]<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Changes in the Sun itself<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Changes in the Sun&#8217;s ultraviolet output<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The Sun&#8217;s magnetic field and cosmic rays<br \/>\n + References p.17<br \/>\n2. Thermometry p.18<br \/>\n + Air thermometers p.18<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Philo of Byzantium and Hero of Alexandria<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Della Porta and Santorio in Italy<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Fludd in England and Drebbel in Holland<br \/>\n + Liquid-in-glass thermometers p.20<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Jean Rey<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Ferdinand II, Grand Duke of Tuscany<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Boulliau in France and Boyle in England<br \/>\n + Fixed points and scales p.23<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Christian Huygens<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Bartolo, Eschinardi and Renaldini in Italy<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Dalenc\u00e9 in Holland and de la Hire in France<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Newton, Patrick and Hauksbee in England<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; R\u00f8mer in Denmark<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Fahrenheit in Poland and Holland<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; R\u00e9aumur in France<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Delisle<br \/>\n + &#8216;Centigrade&#8217; scales p.27<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Delisle, Micheli, Horrebow and R\u00e9aumur<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Celcius, Ekstr\u00f6m, Str\u00f6mer, Linnaeus and Christin<br \/>\n + The absolute, or thermodynamic, temperature scale p.29<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Guillaume Amontons<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; William Thompson  [Kelvin]<br \/>\n + The International Practical Temperature Scale p.30<br \/>\n + Modern thermometers p.31<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Liquid-in-glass<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; &#8216;Present temperature&#8217;<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Maximum and minimum thermometers<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Zero drift<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Bimetallic thermographs<br \/>\n + Electrical thermometers p.36<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Platinum resistance thermometers<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Thermistors<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Thermocouples<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Thermal capacitors<br \/>\n + Satellite measurements of surface temperature p.39<br \/>\n &#8211; (-&gt; Appendix D; Chapter 10 for sounders)<br \/>\n + References p.39<br \/>\n3. Screens, stands and shelters p.40<br \/>\n + The needs for thermometer protection p.40<br \/>\n + The evolved screens p.40<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Open shelters<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; George Martin<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; James Glaisher<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Henry Lawson and the Reverend Stow<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; H. Mari\u00e9-Davy and Charles Sainte-Claire Deville<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Fully enclosed screens<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; The Plymouth Dockyard screen<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; The Kew stand<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; The Stevenson screen<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; The cotton region shelter<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Screens on ships<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Heinrich Wild<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Signal Service thermometer shelter<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Aspirated screens<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Miniature screens for automatic weather stations (AWSs)<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Height of screens<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Continuity of records<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Comparison of screen performance<br \/>\n + References p.52<br \/>\n4. Measuring land surface air temperature p.54<br \/>\n + The origin of data p.54<br \/>\n + The instruments p.55<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Thermometers<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Screens<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Screens at tropical and polar sites<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Instrument calibration<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Instrument maintenance<br \/>\n + Met enclosures p.60<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Exposure of screens<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Representativeness of sites<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; The urban heat island and land-use changes<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Met enclosure maintenance<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Short-term, local maintenance<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Long-term stability<br \/>\n + References p.68<br \/>\n5. Measuring sea surface and marine air temperatures p.70<br \/>\n + A brief history of measurements at sea p.70<br \/>\n + Air versus sea temperatures p.71<br \/>\n + Definition of &#8216;sea surface temperature&#8217; p.72<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The skin temperature<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The sub-skin sea surface temperature<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The surface temperature at depth<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The foundation temperature<br \/>\n + Ships as instrument platforms p.73<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Ocean weather ships (OWS)<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The voluntary observing fleet (VOF)<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Decline in the number of voluntary observing ships<br \/>\n + Measuring air temperature on ships p.75<br \/>\n + Measuring sea surface temperature (SST) on ships p.76<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Buckets<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Engine-room intakes<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Hull temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Differences between buckets, ERI and hull measurements<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; A submersible electrical thermometer<br \/>\n + Buoys as instrument platforms p.89<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Moored buoys<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Air temperature measurements on moored buoys<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Sea surface temperature measured by moored buoys<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Telemetering the measurements to base<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Buoy location systems<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Drifting buoys<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Joseph Louis Lagrange and Leonhard Euler<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Lagrangian Buoys<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Construction of the buoys<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Accuracy of the SST data from drifting buoys<br \/>\n + References p.89<br \/>\n6. Measuring sea temperature profiles p.92<br \/>\n + The bathythermograph p.92<br \/>\n + Argo: a drifting profiler float p.93<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Origins of Argo<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The Argo hardware<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Argo and Jason<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The uses of Argo, Jason and XBT measurements<br \/>\n + References p.100<br \/>\n7. Global instrument networks p.102<br \/>\n + First station compilations p.102<br \/>\n + World Weather Records (WWR) p.103<br \/>\n + The Climatic Research Unit (CRU) network p.103<br \/>\n + The Global Historical Climatology Network (GHCN) p.104<br \/>\n + The Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) p.104<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Land surface air temperature stations<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; GCOS ocean networks<br \/>\n + The adequacy of the GCOS network p.109<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Global coverage<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Data quality<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Local microclimates<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Site representatives<br \/>\n + Using <i>Google Earth<\/i> to access GCOS site conditions p.111<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Google Earth<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Evaluating instrument sites from <i>Google Earth<\/i> imagery<br \/>\n + Disseminating the data p.112<br \/>\n + References p.113<br \/>\n8. From point measurements to global averages p.115<br \/>\n + Data from the land p.115<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Working in averages<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Calculating the average<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Time of taking the measurements<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Working in &#8216;anomalies&#8217;<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Homogeneity<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Working in grids<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Different methods of gridding<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; The climate anomaly method<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Are anomalies weightless?<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; &#8216;Spatial degrees of freedom&#8217;<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Effect of missing grids<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Datasets from the land<br \/>\n + Data from the oceans p.129<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Weighting SST anomalies<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Producing gridded values of SST<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Datasets from the sea<br \/>\n + Combining sea and land datasets p.131<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Equivalence between land air and sea surface data<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Choice between SST and MAT<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The blending process<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Producing global datasets<br \/>\n + References p.134<br \/>\n9. Changes in air and sea temperatures p.137<br \/>\n + The datasets p.137<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Trendlines<br \/>\n + Causes of temperature change p.139<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Measurements versus model projections<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Teleconnections<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; The Southern Oscillation<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; The Pacific Decadal Oscillation<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Other Oscillations<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Influence of the oscillations<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Volcanic activity<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Solar activity<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Clouds<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Changes in atmospheric circulation<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Increases level of carbon dioxide<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Changes introduced by changing site conditions and changing instruments<br \/>\n + Hemispheric and global temperature changes since 1850 p.150<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Land air temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Northern Hemisphere land air temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Southern Hemisphere land air temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Global land air temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Sea surface temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Northern Hemisphere sea surface temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Southern Hemisphere sea surface temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Global sea surface temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Land-air and sea-surface temperature combined<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Northern Hemisphere land-air and sea-surface temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Southern Hemisphere land-air and sea-surface temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Global land-air and sea-surface temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Recent temperature changes<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Land air temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Sea surface temperatures<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Land and sea temperatures combined<br \/>\n + Central England Temperature since 1659 p.171<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The dataset<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Temperatures from 1659 to 2008<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Temperatures from 1850 to 2008<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Temperatures from 1975 to 2008<br \/>\n + Changes in maximum and minimum temperatures p.176<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Early investigations (the 1990s)<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Later investigations (2001-2006)<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Recent investigations (2007 onwards)<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Northern Hemisphere<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Southern Hemisphere<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Causes of the changes in DTR<br \/>\n + References p.185<br \/>\n10. Temperature profiles through the atmosphere p.187<br \/>\n + Early measurements p.187<br \/>\n + Radiosondes p.188<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; The hardware<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Sonde temperature sensors<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Accuracy, calibration and errors<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Review of performance and of corrections<br \/>\n + Sounders p.195<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Principles<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Brightness temperature and algorithms<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Obtaining temperature profiles from sounder measurements<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Assessment of sounder performance<br \/>\n + Temperature profiles from sonde data p.198<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Causes of tropospheric warming<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Global temperature trends through the full depth of the troposphere<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Temperature trends in the mid-troposphere at 67.5 {deg} N in winter<br \/>\n + References p.204<br \/>\n11. Future climate measurements p.206<br \/>\n + The Global Climate Observing System p.206<br \/>\n + A new instrument network p.207<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Number of stations required<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Purposes of the new network<br \/>\n + Design of the new stations p.208<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; General concept<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Temperature<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; The sensors<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; The screens<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Sea surface temperature<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Precipitation<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Other variables<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Power supplies<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Power supplies for aspirated screens<br \/>\n + Data telemetry p.211<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; On land<br \/>\n &#8211; &#8211; Over the oceans<br \/>\n + Site locations p.211<br \/>\n + Cost and management p.212<br \/>\n + Concluding remarks p.212<br \/>\n + References p.212<br \/>\nAppendix A. The gas laws p.213<br \/>\n &#8211; Boyle&#8217;s law<br \/>\n &#8211; Charles&#8217;s law<br \/>\n &#8211; The Pressure law<br \/>\n &#8211; The ideal gas equation<br \/>\nAppendix B. Relative humidity and dew point p.214<br \/>\n  &#8211; Evaporation<br \/>\n  &#8211; Saturation<br \/>\n  &#8211; Other units<br \/>\nAppendix C. The electromagnetic spectrum p.216<br \/>\n  &#8211; The most-used wavebands<br \/>\nAppendix D. Satellite measurements of surface temperature p.219<br \/>\n  &#8211; Satellite orbits<br \/>\n  &#8211; Measuring the radiation<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Radiometers<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Visible wavelengths<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Infrared wavelengths<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Scanning radiometers<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Scanning radiometers in polar orbits<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Scanning radiometers in geostationary orbits<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Multispectral scanners<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Sounders<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Calibration of radiometers<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Visible channels<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; &#8211; Infrared channels<br \/>\n  &#8211; Brightness temperature<br \/>\n  &#8211; Algorithms<br \/>\n  &#8211; Temperature at the surface<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Skin temperature<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Land surface air temperatures<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Sea surface temperatures<br \/>\n  &#8211; The strengths and weaknesses of remote sensing<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Spatial and temporal restraints<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Clouds and night<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Scaling<br \/>\n  &#8211; &#8211; Accuracy and ground-truth<br \/>\nAppendix E. Metadata p.226<br \/>\n  &#8211; Metadata are data about data<br \/>\n  &#8211; Reference<br \/>\nAppendix F. The Southern Oscillation Index p.227<br \/>\n  &#8211; References<br \/>\nIndex p.228[-233]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Ian STRANGEWAYS, 2010: Measuring Global Temperatures: Their Analysis and Interpretation. Cambridge UK: Cambrid [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[2],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-309","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-dokusyo-memo-"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/309","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=309"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/309\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":8606,"href":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/309\/revisions\/8606"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=309"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=309"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"http:\/\/macroscope.world.coocan.jp\/yukukawa\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=309"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}